📄 From your Polity Notes PDF
🚀 Overview
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is India's space agency, a major constituent of the Department of Space (DOS), Government of India. Vision: "Harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration." ISRO maintains one of the largest fleets of communication (INSAT) and remote sensing (IRS) satellites, and is one of the six largest space agencies in the world.
The Chairman, ISRO is simultaneously Secretary, DOS and Chairman, Space Commission — the apex body that formulates space policy.
📜 History & Formation
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| 1961 | GoI and PM Nehru, on Dr Vikram Sarabhai's recommendation, decided to go to space. |
| 1962 | INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research) set up; Sarabhai at its helm. Set up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), Thiruvananthapuram. |
| 1969 | ISRO formed on 15 August, superseding INCOSPAR with an expanded national-development role. |
| 1972 | Department of Space (DOS) set up; ISRO brought under DOS (1 June); Space Commission also constituted. |
| 1975 | Aryabhata — India's first satellite, launched by the Soviet Union (19 April). |
| 1980 | Rohini — first satellite placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle (SLV-3, 18 July). |
| 1988 | First INSAT and first IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) satellites launched. |
| 2008 | Chandrayaan-1 — India's first Moon mission; confirmed water molecules on the Moon. |
| 2013 | Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) — first nation to succeed in Mars orbit insertion on the first attempt; first Asian nation in Mars orbit. |
| 2019 | Chandrayaan-2 — lander crashed, orbiter remains functional. |
| 2023, Aug 23 | Chandrayaan-3 — first soft landing near the lunar south pole; India the 4th nation to land on the Moon. |
| 2023, Sep 2 | Aditya-L1 — India's first solar probe, placed at Lagrangian Point L1. |
| 2025, Jan 16 | SpaDeX — India became the 4th country (after USA, Russia, China) to achieve space docking. |
| 2025, June | Axiom Mission 4 — Shubhanshu Shukla became the first Indian at the ISS. |
| 2025, Jul 30 | NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR) launched via GSLV-F16 — now in Science Phase (Jan 2026). |
👤 Leadership & Organisational Structure
- Chairman, ISRO / Secretary, DOS / Chairman, Space Commission (as of June 2026): Dr V. Narayanan — took charge 14 January 2025, succeeding Dr S. Somanath (credited with Chandrayaan-3 and Aditya-L1).
- ISRO activities are guided by an ISRO Council — the apex technical body.
- As of April 2026, ISRO has launched 434 foreign satellites from 34 countries; performed 135 spacecraft missions, 105 launch missions, 18 student satellites, 9 re-entry missions.
- India's Space Policy (2023) provides the overarching framework for national space activities.
Hierarchy: Prime Minister → Department of Space (DOS) → ISRO (+ ISRO Council) / IN-SPACe / CPSEs (Antrix, NSIL) → Autonomous Bodies (PRL, NARL, NESAC, IIST) → 14 ISRO Centres & Units + HQ Bengaluru.
🏛️ ISRO Centres & Units (14 + HQ)
| Centre | Location & Focus |
|---|
| ISRO HQ / DOS HQ | Bengaluru — Antariksh Bhavan, New BEL Road. |
| Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) | Thiruvananthapuram — primary centre for launch vehicle design (PSLV, GSLV, LVM3, SSLV). |
| Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) | Valiamala & Bengaluru — liquid/cryogenic propulsion; key to Gaganyaan's Service Module Propulsion System. |
| Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR | Sriharikota, AP — India's launch facility (Spaceport); Third Launch Pad approved. |
| U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) | Bengaluru — satellite design/development/assembly/testing; built NISAR's spacecraft bus. |
| Space Applications Centre (SAC) | Ahmedabad — designs space-borne sensors/payloads; developed NISAR's S-band SAR. |
| National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) | Hyderabad — remote sensing data reception, processing, dissemination; maintains Bhoonidhi. |
| Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) | Bengaluru — dedicated to the Gaganyaan programme. |
| ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC) | Mahendragiri, TN — tests liquid/cryogenic engines for Gaganyaan and GSLV Mk3. |
| ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) | Thiruvananthapuram — gyroscopes, accelerometers, IMUs; contributed to SpaDeX navigation. |
| ISRO Telemetry, Tracking & Command Network (ISTRAC) | Bengaluru + global ground stations — global tracking/telemetry/command network; celebrated 50 years in 2025. |
| Master Control Facility (MCF) | Hassan (Karnataka) & Bhopal (MP) — manages geostationary satellites (INSAT/GSAT). |
| Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS) | Bengaluru — electro-optical sensors, cameras, star/Sun sensors. |
| Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) | Dehradun — training/education/research in Remote Sensing, GIS, geospatial tech; runs YUVIKA. |
🏢 Bodies & Agencies Under DOS
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| IN-SPACe | Ahmedabad — autonomous, single-window nodal agency authorising/promoting Non-Governmental Entities (private sector) in space activities. |
| Antrix Corporation Limited | Bengaluru — commercial arm; markets ISRO's space products/services internationally. |
| NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) | Bengaluru (+ GIFT City) — industry-facing CPSE commercialising ISRO's R&D. |
| Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) | Ahmedabad — India's 'cradle of space science'; space physics, astronomy, planetary sciences. |
| National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) | Tirupati — atmospheric science, meteorology, climate studies. |
| North Eastern-Space Applications Centre (NESAC) | Umiam, Meghalaya — space tech services to NE states. |
| Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) | Thiruvananthapuram — deemed university; skilled manpower for ISRO. |
🌐 ISRO Portals & Digital Platforms
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| Bhuvan | Indian Geo-Platform — national GIS/earth observation portal. |
| Bhoonidhi | Earth Observation Data Hub — repository for satellite imagery, incl. NISAR data since Feb 2026. |
| VEDAS | Visualisation of Earth Observation Data and Archival System. |
| MOSDAC | Meteorological & Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Centre. |
| NDEM | National Database for Emergency Management. |
| ISSDC | Indian Space Science Data Centre — archives scientific data from space-science missions. |
| SPARK | ISRO Virtual Space Museum. |
🚀 Launch Vehicles
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| PSLV | Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle — ISRO's workhorse; 4-stage (solid-liquid-solid-liquid); 105+ successful missions; polar/sun-synchronous orbits. |
| GSLV | Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle — heavier GTO payloads; cryogenic upper stage (CE-7.5); GSLV-F16 launched NISAR (30 Jul 2025). |
| LVM3 ('Bahubali') | ISRO's heaviest launch vehicle (formerly GSLV Mk III); 4-tonne class to GTO; used for Chandrayaan-2 & 3, SpaDeX; Human-Rated variant (HLVM3) for Gaganyaan. |
| SSLV | Small Satellite Launch Vehicle — cost-effective, quick-turnaround; 2nd launch complex under construction at Kulasekarapattinam, TN (commissioning ~Dec 2026). |
| NGLV (upcoming) | Next Generation Launch Vehicle — family of 5 modular rockets to replace PSLV/GSLV; targeting ~16t to GTO (~4× LVM3 capacity). |
🛰️ Satellite Programmes
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| INSAT | Indian National Satellite System — one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific; first launched 1988; telecom, TV broadcasting, meteorology, disaster warning. |
| IRS | Indian Remote Sensing System — India's Earth Observation fleet; includes Cartosat, RISAT, Resourcesat, Oceansat series; first launched 1988. |
| NavIC / IRNSS | India's own regional satellite navigation system; provides services within ~1500 km of Indian boundary; also uses GAGAN (SBAS). |
| NISAR | NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar — launched 30 Jul 2025; world's first dual-frequency SAR (L-band + S-band); ~US$1.5 billion, world's most expensive Earth-imaging satellite; tracks forests, ice, crust changes at 1–2mm precision. |
🌍 Remote Sensing & Earth Observation
Key centres: NRSC (Hyderabad, data reception/dissemination), SAC (Ahmedabad, sensor design), IIRS (Dehradun, training). Major platforms: Bhuvan, Bhoonidhi, VEDAS, MOSDAC, NDEM.
Recent applications: forest fire detection (Bhutan capacity-building) • ROCERS (Chemical Emergency Response, Kerala) • coal-fire mapping (BCCL/CMPDI) • Cartosat-3 imaged Myanmar earthquake damage (Mar 2025) • wheat crop area estimation • "International Charter Space and Major Disasters" lead role (from Apr 2025).
🏆 Key Completed Missions
| Mission | Key Achievement |
|---|
| Aryabhata (1975) | India's first satellite (Soviet launcher). |
| Rohini (1980) | First satellite launched by an Indian-made vehicle (SLV-3). |
| Chandrayaan-1 (2008) | India's first lunar mission; confirmed water molecules on the Moon. |
| Mars Orbiter Mission (2013) | India's first interplanetary mission; 1st-attempt Mars orbit insertion. |
| AstroSat (2015) | India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space astronomy observatory. |
| Chandrayaan-2 (2019) | Orbiter functional; lander crashed; DFSAR revealed subsurface lunar ice. |
| Chandrayaan-3 (2023) | First soft landing near lunar south pole; 4th nation to land on Moon; rover Pragyan. |
| Aditya-L1 (2023) | India's first solar probe; SUIT captured solar flare details; studies CME impact. |
| XPoSat (2024) | India's first dedicated X-ray polarimetry astronomy mission. |
| SpaDeX (2024) | Space Docking Experiment; 4th country to achieve space docking (16 Jan 2025). |
| Axiom Mission 4 (2025) | Shubhanshu Shukla — first Indian at the ISS; ~60 experiments. |
| NISAR / GSLV-F16 (2025) | World's first dual-frequency SAR satellite; now in Science Phase. |
🔭 Upcoming Missions & Future Roadmap
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| Gaganyaan | India's human spaceflight programme — Goal: send Gaganyatris to LEO (~400km) for ~7 days; India to become 4th nation with independent human spaceflight capability. Budget ₹20,193 crore (+₹11,170 crore for expanded scope incl. BAS-1). Astronauts: Prasanth Nair, Ajit Krishnan, Angad Pratap, Shubhanshu Shukla. Humanoid robot Vyommitra flies uncrewed test flights G1/G2. H1 crewed mission planned 2027. |
| Chandrayaan-4 | Planned ~2027–28; Budget ₹2,104.06 crore; lunar sample-return mission — India to become the 4th country to attempt this; needs 2 LVM3 launches and in-space docking (building on SpaDeX tech). |
| Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX | Joint ISRO-JAXA (Japan) mission targeting permanently shadowed regions at the Moon's south pole, searching for water ice; heavier rover, launched on a Japanese rocket. |
| Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan) | Planned launch 29 March 2028; studies Venus's thick atmosphere, surface geology, climatic conditions. |
| Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) | India's own space station — 20-tonne class, ~400km altitude; target operational by 2035; BAS-1 first unit as part of the redesigned Human Spaceflight Programme (8 missions total by Dec 2028). |
⚡ Quick Reference Facts
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| Founded | 15 August 1969 (superseded INCOSPAR, established 1962) |
| Headquarters | Antariksh Bhavan, New BEL Road, Bengaluru |
| Parent | Department of Space (DOS), Government of India |
| Chairman (2026) | Dr V. Narayanan (also Secretary DOS, Chairman Space Commission) |
| Launch Vehicles | PSLV, GSLV, LVM3, SSLV, HLVM3 (human-rated) |
| Primary Launch Site | Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, AP; 2nd site under construction at Kulasekarapattinam, TN |
| Key Milestones | Chandrayaan-3 (2023) · Aditya-L1 (2023) · SpaDeX (2025) · Axiom-4 (2025) · NISAR science phase (2026) |
| Flagship Upcoming | Gaganyaan-G1 (H2 2026) · Chandrayaan-4 (2027-28) · Venus Orbiter (2028) · BAS (2035 target) · Indian on Moon (2040 target) |
| Commercial Arms | Antrix Corporation Ltd, NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL) |
| Governing Policy | India's Space Policy, 2023 |
🎯 Exam Angle
Prelims frequently tests mission-year-achievement triads (e.g. which mission made India the 4th country to achieve space docking) and centre-location-function matches (VSSC ↔ launch vehicles, SAC ↔ sensors, NRSC ↔ data dissemination). Mains rewards linking ISRO's frugal engineering approach to India's broader "technology for development" paradigm, and discussing the 2023 Space Policy's three-tier reform (ISRO as R&D hub, IN-SPACe as regulator, NSIL as commercial arm) as a case study in opening a strategic sector to private participation.
🏛️ Institutional Architecture Since the 2023 Space Policy
For decades ISRO acted as sole developer, manufacturer, regulator and commercial vendor. The Indian Space Policy 2023 split this into three distinct entities:
| Item | Detail |
|---|
| ISRO (Core R&D Hub) | No longer responsible for routine/repetitive satellite manufacturing or commercial launch sales; focuses on deep-space exploration, human spaceflight, new propulsion, and tech verification. |
| IN-SPACe (Independent Nodal Regulator) | Single-window autonomous clearinghouse under DOS; handles security clearances/authorisation for private players (rocket launches, satellite data purchase, launchpad leasing). |
| NSIL (Commercial Arm) | Wholly owned CPSE; transfers ISRO's proven technologies to Indian private industry; manages commercial satellite-launch bookings for domestic and international clients. |
FDI reform for the space sector: up to 100% (automatic route) for satellite component/subsystem manufacturing; up to 74% for satellite manufacturing/operations/data products; up to 49% for launch vehicles, associated systems and private spaceports.
⚖️ International Space Law Commitments
| Instrument | India's Status |
|---|
| Outer Space Treaty (1967) | Ratified — bans WMDs in orbit; prohibits sovereign territorial claims on celestial bodies; declares space free for all nations. |
| Liability Convention (1972) | Ratified — establishes absolute financial liability on the launching state for damage caused by its space object. |
| Moon Agreement (1979) | Signed only — attempts to place the Moon and its resources under international regulatory control; not ratified by India or any major space power. |
