The regional kingdoms that rose as the Delhi Sultanate fractured, the Bahmani Sultanate and its five Deccan successor states, and provincial Indo-Islamic architecture.
The Delhi Sultanate reached its greatest extent under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq — yet it was during his own reign that the empire began to disintegrate, giving rise to independent regional kingdoms.
| Kingdom (Dynasty) | Key Fact | Absorbed Into Mughal Empire |
|---|---|---|
| Bengal (Ilyas Shahi) | Alauddin Husain Shah, influenced by Chaitanya, translated the Mahabharata into Bengali | Babur, 1529 (Battle of Ghaghra) |
| Jaunpur (Sharqi) | Husain Shah Sharqi introduced Khayal; built the Atala Masjid | — |
| Malwa (Khilji) | Baz Bahadur & Queen Roopmati — patrons of Hindustani music | Akbar |
| Gujarat (Muzaffarid) | Mahmud Shah I "Begada" — first Indian ruler to challenge the Portuguese (Battle of Diu, 1509) | Akbar, 1572–73 |
| Mewar (Sisodia) | Rana Sanga, Rana Pratap (Haldighati, 1576), Amar Singh | Accepted suzerainty, 1615 — never fully conquered |
| Marwar (Rathore) | Rao Maldev defeated by Sher Shah Suri at Giri Sumel (1544) | — |
| Kashmir (Shah Mir) | Zain-ul-Abidin — "Akbar of Kashmir," renovated Hindu temples, banned cow slaughter | Akbar, 1586 |
Founded by Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah ("Hasan Gangu"), a chief who revolted against Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Capitals: Gulbarga, then Bidar (from Ahmad Shah I). The dynasty first conquered the strategic Raichur Doab from Vijayanagara. The nobility split into two rival factions: foreign-origin "Afaqis" and native "Deccanis". Mahmud Gawan, its greatest Prime Minister, reorganised the kingdom's provinces from 4 to 8 and built a famous Madrasa at Bidar — his land revenue reforms are believed to have inspired Todar Mal's later Mughal system. Falsely accused of treason, he was executed in 1481, triggering the kingdom's rapid disintegration into five successor states.
| State | Dynasty | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Ahmadnagar | Nizam Shahi | Chand Bibi defended it; minister Malik Ambar pioneered guerrilla warfare — a model later adopted by Shivaji |
| Bijapur | Adil Shahi | Strongest of the five; Ibrahim Adil Shah II ("Jagad Guru") devoted to both Ganesha and Saraswati; annexed by Aurangzeb, 1686 |
| Golconda | Qutub Shahi | Muhammad Quli founded Bhagyanagar/Hyderabad, built the Charminar; last Deccan state absorbed (Aurangzeb, 1687) |
| Bidar | Barid Shahi | — |
| Berar | Imad Shahi | Smallest/weakest; did not take part in the Battle of Talikota (1565) |
Wherever regional Muslim kingdoms arose, provincial architecture absorbed local traditions into Islamic forms. Bengal (Ilyas Shahi style) — minarets smaller than the main structure; the Adina Masjid at Pandua was once the biggest mosque in Northeast India. Jaunpur (Sharqi school) — no minarets ("Pathan style"); the Atala Masjid; the disputed Babri Masjid was the last major building in this style. Malwa (Khilji style) — elaborate stone pillars, the Hindola Mahal at Mandu. Gujarat (Bahadur Shahi style) — intricate wooden "jali" lattice-work; Rani Sipri's Mosque, Ahmedabad, called by James Fergusson "the most beautiful structure in India." Deccan (Bahmani style) — huge domes, red sandstone, at Bijapur and Golconda.
Awadh architecture (18th–19th c., Lucknow) used a distinctive mortar of brick dust, urad dal and rice husk — seen in the Bara Imambara (1784) and Rumi Darwaza. Kashmir architecture developed in two phases: an early Hindu phase under the Karkota/Utpala dynasties (Martand Sun Temple, trefoil arches showing Gandhara influence) followed by a hybrid Kashmiri-Islamic phase from the 14th century (Jamia Masjid, 370 wooden pillars); Mughal-era Charbagh gardens (Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh) were added under Jahangir and Nur Jahan.
