Every Mughal ruler from Babur to Bahadur Shah Zafar — conquests, revenue systems, religious policy, and the empire's rise and long decline.
| Ruler | Reign | Remembered chiefly for |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–30 | 1st Battle of Panipat; founder; wrote the Baburnama |
| Humayun | 1530–40, 1555–56 | Lost & regained Delhi; Humayun's Tomb; father of Akbar |
| Sher Shah Suri | 1540–45 | Grand Trunk Road; Rupiya coinage; Sarkar-Pargana system |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | Mansabdari; Dahsala revenue system; Din-i-Ilahi; Navratnas |
| Jahangir | 1605–27 | Zanjir-i-Adl; golden age of Mughal painting |
| Shah Jahan | 1628–58 | Taj Mahal; Red Fort; Peacock Throne |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Greatest territorial extent; reimposed jizya; Deccan annexations |
| Later Mughals | 1707–1857 | Steady decline; 1857 Revolt; end of Mughal rule |
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat (1526), then the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga at Khanwa (1527) — the first ruler in India to use gunpowder and artillery. Humayun lost Delhi entirely to the Afghan chieftain Sher Shah Suri after defeats at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), and only recovered it in 1555; he died in 1556 falling from his library steps. Sher Shah, in his brief reign, rebuilt the Grand Trunk Road, introduced the silver Rupiya — the template for Indian coinage for centuries — and organised territory into Sarkars and Parganas, a structure the Mughals later inherited.
Ascending at 14, Akbar is regarded by many historians as the true architect of the Mughal Empire. He conquered Malwa, Bengal, Gujarat, Kashmir, Sindh and Ahmednagar, but Mewar — despite Rana Pratap's defeat at Haldighati (1576) — was never fully subdued in his lifetime. Reforms: banned forced conversion of war prisoners (1562), abolished the pilgrim tax (1563) and Jizya (1564).
His land revenue system, designed chiefly by Raja Todar Mal: the Dahsala system (1580), assessing revenue from the average produce/prices of the preceding ten years; land classed as Polaj, Parauti, Chachar or Banjar depending on how often it was cultivated. The Mansabdari system ranked nobles by Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (cavalry maintained), paid either in cash or via a Jagir.
The Navratnas (Nine Jewels): Abul Fazl (Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnama), Abul Faizi, Mian Tansen, Birbal, Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, Bhagwan Das, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, and Mulla Do Piyaza.
Akbar built the Ibadat Khana (1575) at Fatehpur Sikri for inter-faith debate. The Mazhar (1579) made him "Amir-i-Adil" — supreme arbiter in religious matters. In 1582 he introduced Din-i-Ilahi (Tawhid-i-Ilahi) — not a true organised religion (no scripture, no place of worship), centred on Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace/harmony). It remained personal to Akbar and faded after his death; historian V.A. Smith called it "the monumental folly of Akbar's genius."
Jahangir set up the Zanjir-i-Adl ("Chain of Justice") at Agra Fort. He married Nur Jahan (1611), whose political circle (the "Junta") — herself, father Itimad-ud-Daulah, brother Asaf Khan, and Asaf Khan's son-in-law Khurram (future Shah Jahan) — effectively ran the court; coins were struck jointly in her name. English envoy Sir Thomas Roe arrived in 1618, leading to the first English factory in India at Surat. His reign is called the golden age of Mughal painting.
His wife Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631; the Taj Mahal (1631–1653, ~22 years) was built as her memorial, using Makrana marble, its finest feature the Bulbous Dome — architect usually named as Ustad Ahmad Lahori. His reign is the Golden Age of the Mughal Empire — the Red Fort, Jama Masjid, and Shahjahanabad (Delhi's 7th city) all date to it. He commissioned the jewel-encrusted Peacock Throne.
War of Succession (1657–59): among his four sons — Dara Shikoh (eldest, secular scholar), Shuja, Aurangzeb (Deccan governor) and Murad — Aurangzeb won, executing Dara (1659) and imprisoning Shah Jahan in Agra Fort until his death (1666).
Known as Zinda Pir ("Living Saint") for his austere orthodoxy, he banned music, painting and Holi/Navroz celebrations at court. In 1675 he reimposed Jizya (reversing Akbar) and executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, for refusing conversion — his successor Guru Gobind Singh organised the Khalsa in response. Major revolts: Bundelas (Chhatrasal), Satnamis, Jats (founding Bharatpur), Sikhs, and Rajputs (Durgadas Rathore). His prolonged Deccan campaign — the "Deccan Ulcer" — annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), giving the empire its greatest-ever territorial extent even as it drained Mughal resources and triggered long-term decline. Died 1707; buried in a deliberately simple grave at Khuldabad.
A steady decline: Nadir Shah's invasion (1739) carried off the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor; the empire ceded Punjab to Ahmad Shah Abdali; the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Third Battle of Panipat (1761) fell within this period; Shah Alam II granted the Company Diwani rights via the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) after Buxar (1764). Bahadur Shah II "Zafar", the last emperor, was the nominal head of the 1857 revolt and was exiled to Burma — the formal end of Mughal rule.
Architecture: Persian style under Humayun → Hindu-Persian blend under Akbar (Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza) → white marble & Pietra Dura under Jahangir/Nur Jahan → floral motifs peak under Shah Jahan (Taj Mahal) → sharp decline under Aurangzeb. Painting: miniatures revived under Humayun (Hamzanama) → Mughal school founded by Akbar → naturalism under Jahangir (painter Ustad Mansur, "Raphael of the East") → diffusion to regional schools (Basholi, Kangra, Rajput) after Aurangzeb's restrictions.
