Appointment, term, removal, powers and reporting mechanism for all 13 key Constitutional/Statutory bodies, plus the Indian Parliamentary Group.
A comparative master table of the 13 key Constitutional and Statutory bodies of India — split, as in the original notes, into two groups. Each body's profile covers its nature, appointment, term, removal, functions, powers, limitations and reporting mechanism.
Art. 76 | Chapter 53 | Part V
| Nature / Background | Not a constitutional 'body' per se — highest law officer. NOT a member of Cabinet (separate Law Minister exists). Not a govt servant / not a full-time counsel for govt. |
| Appointment & Composition | Appointed by the President. Qualification: qualified to be a Judge of the SC — (i) citizen of India (ii) Judge of a HC for 5 yrs, OR Advocate of a HC for 10 yrs, OR eminent jurist in the President's opinion. |
| Term of Office | Not fixed. Holds office during the pleasure of the President. Constitution doesn't specify a removal procedure. |
| Removal | Can resign by letter to the President. When govt changes, the AG is usually replaced/resigns. Remuneration not fixed by the Constitution — decided by the President. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | Solicitor General (SG) & Additional Solicitor General (ASG) assist the AG — not mentioned in Art. 76, not debarred from private legal practice. |
| Duties & Functions | (1) Appear on GoI's behalf in all cases (2) Represent GoI in any reference made by the President (3) Appear in any HC where GoI is concerned. Advises GoI on legal matters. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Right of audience in all courts in India. Right to speak and take part in proceedings of both Houses of Parliament, without a right to vote. Enjoys all privileges of an MP. |
| Limitations | Shouldn't advise against/in cases of GoI or any Ministry. Shouldn't defend an accused person without GoI's permission. Shouldn't accept a directorship without permission. Not a full-time govt counsel. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Assists the Government of India directly; not a reporting body. |
| Key Notes | Other law officers (SG, ASG) assist the AG in official responsibilities. |
Art. 165 | Chapter 54 | Part VI
| Nature / Background | State-level counterpart of the AG — highest law officer in the State. |
| Appointment & Composition | Appointed by the Governor. Qualification: qualified to be a Judge of the High Court. |
| Term of Office | Not fixed — holds office during the pleasure of the Governor (analogous to the AG). |
| Removal | Can resign by letter to the Governor. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | Single officer (no assisting SG-equivalent structure specified). |
| Duties & Functions | Largely analogous to the Attorney General but confined to State matters. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Similar rights of audience within the State and to speak in the State Legislature (without a vote). |
| Limitations | Similar limitations as the AG, applied at the State level. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Reports/advises the State Government (Governor). |
| Key Notes | Chapter 54, a subordinate structure to the AG framework; the highest law office in the State. |
Art. 148, 149 | Chapter 52 | Part V
| Nature / Background | Head of the Indian Audit & Accounts Dept. Guardian of the public purse; controls the entire financial system at Centre & State — one of the bulwarks of democracy, alongside the EC and UPSC. |
| Appointment & Composition | Appointed by the President by warrant under his hand & seal. Takes an oath similar to a Judge of the SC/HC. |
| Term of Office | Holds office up to 65 years of age OR a period of 6 years, whichever is earlier. |
| Removal | Can resign by letter to the President. Can be removed by the President similar to a Judge (proved misbehaviour/incapacity, address by Parliament, special majority). |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | Officers of the Indian Audit & Accounts Dept — administrative powers determined by the President after consulting the CAG. No Minister can represent the CAG in Parliament (not an MP). |
| Duties & Functions | Audits: (1) expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of Centre/State (2) the Contingency Fund (3) trading/manufacturing/P&L a/c/balance sheets of any dept (4) receipts & expenditure of Centre/State (5) accounts of any other authority when requested. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Advises the President on the form of accounts of Centre/State (Art. 150). Submits reports (Art. 151). Certifies net proceeds of tax — this certificate is FINAL (Art. 279). Guide/friend/philosopher to the Public Accounts Committee. |
| Limitations | Secret service expenditure limits the CAG's audit role. In reality the CAG does NOT control (draw money) — only audits. Role in Govt companies is very limited. Appleby's criticism recommended abolishing the office. |
| Reporting Mechanism | 3 Audit Reports (Appropriation A/c, Finance A/c, Public Undertakings) placed before both Houses by the President → the Public Accounts Committee examines and reports findings. Security of tenure — doesn't hold office at the President's pleasure. Not eligible for further office (equal to a Judge of the SC). |
| Key Notes | Ministry of Finance office memorandum (2006) on Performance Audit. Performs obligatory (legal/regulatory) + discretionary (propriety) audit. Corporations fall into 3 audit categories: directly by CAG, by private auditors consulting CAG, or purely private audit. |
Art. 280, 281 | Chapter 46
| Nature / Background | Quasi-judicial constitutional body. Constituted by the President every 5th year, or when the President thinks necessary. 15 FCs so far; the 16th FC (till 2031) is the most recent. |
| Appointment & Composition | 1 Chairman + 4 Members, appointed by the President. Eligible for re-appointment. Parliament determines member qualifications (Finance Commission Act, 1951). |
| Term of Office | Chairman: experience in public affairs. Members: (i) Judge of a HC or qualified to be so (ii) specialised knowledge of finance & accounts (iii) wide experience in financial administration (iv) special knowledge of economics. |
| Removal | Not specifically detailed in the notes (tenure/removal aligned with terms set by Parliament's Act). |
| Duties & Functions | Makes recommendations to the President on: (1) principles for distributing taxes between Centre & States, and allocation among States (2) measures to augment a State's Consolidated Fund to supplement Panchayats/Municipalities (3) any other matter referred in the interest of sound finance. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Report submitted to the President → laid before Parliament. The HU Committee (1960) suggested grants to Assam, Bihar, Odisha, W. Bengal on jute, for a temporary 10-year period. |
| Limitations | Recommendations are only advisory on govt, NOT binding — though decisions shouldn't be turned down without strong reason. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Submits report to the President, laid before Parliament. |
| Key Notes | Called the 'balancing wheel of fiscal federalism' in India (per the Constitution). Its role in Centre-State fiscal relations was undermined by the erstwhile Planning Commission till 2014 (replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015). The 4th FC (Dr. P.V. Rajamannar) highlighted overlap between the FC and the Planning Commission. |
Art. 279-A | New Chapter 40
| Nature / Background | The 1st constitutional body vested with powers to take all major GST-structure decisions. Introduced through the 101st CAA, 2016, which also provided for the Council's establishment; the President constituted it in 2016. Secretariat in Delhi. |
| Appointment & Composition | Chairperson — Union Finance Minister; Member (in-charge Revenue/Finance) — Union MoS; Member — each State's finance/taxation minister; Vice-Chairperson — chosen by members among themselves; Permanent Invitee — Chairperson of the CBIC. |
| Term of Office | Ex-officio Secretary to the Council — the Union Revenue Secretary. |
| Removal | Act doesn't become invalid due to: a defect in a member's appointment; vacancy/defect in the Council's constitution; a procedural irregularity not affecting the case's merits. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | A joint forum of Centre & States. Quorum: 1/2 of members. Decision-making: 3/4 of members present and voting; weighted voting — Centre's votes = 1/3rd of total; States' votes (together) = 2/3rd. |
| Duties & Functions | Recommends to Centre & States on: (1) taxes/cesses/surcharges to merge into GST (2) goods/services subject to or exempt from GST (3) model GST laws, levy/apportionment principles, place-of-supply rules (4) exemption threshold turnover (5) rates incl. floor rates with bands (6) special rate(s) during calamity/disaster (7) special provision for 11 States (8) any other GST-related matter. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Also: (1) recommends the date for levying GST on petroleum crude, diesel, petrol, natural gas & ATF (2) establishes a dispute-adjudication mechanism for Centre-States/State-State disputes (3) recommends compensation to States for GST revenue loss — Parliament enacted a compensation law in 2017 for 5 years. |
| Limitations | Vision & Mission: high standards of cooperative federalism; a GST structure built via wider consultation, IT-driven and user-friendly. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Recommendations to Centre and States — a joint forum, not a single reporting hierarchy. |
| Key Notes | The 1st constitutional body vested with power to take all major decisions related to the GST structure. |
Art. 315-323, Part XIV | Chapter 48A
| Nature / Background | Independent constitutional body — the Central recruiting agency. Centenary: October 2025. |
| Appointment & Composition | 1 Chairman + 7–9 Members; strength as the President determines. Appointed by the President, who also determines conditions of service. No qualification except that 1/2 the members should have worked 10 years under the Government of India or a State. |
| Term of Office | Term of office: 6 years OR 65 years of age, whichever is earlier. |
| Removal | Can resign anytime by letter to the President; can also be removed by the President before term end. Grounds: insolvent, holds another office, unfit, misbehaviour — the President refers the matter to the SC for enquiry (binding); the member is suspended during the enquiry. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | Members act as Acting Chairman when the post is vacant or the Chairman is unable to perform functions. |
| Duties & Functions | Conducts exams for All India Services, Central Services, and Public Services. Helps States with joint recruitment on the Governor's request, with the President's approval. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Consulted on: principles for AIS recruitment/appointment/transfers/promotions; candidate suitability. Also consulted by the President on: reimbursement of a civil servant's legal expenses; pension for service injuries; disciplinary matters; extension of service/re-appointment. |
| Limitations | NOT consulted when: the President excludes matters/services from UPSC's purview; reservations for appointment; SC/ST claims in appointment; selection of a commission/tribunal chairman/member and Group C services; temporary appointment (<1 year). No individual minister/dept can reject UPSC's advice. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Presents annual report to the President → placed in both Houses of Parliament. |
| Key Notes | Independence: not eligible for re-appointment (only 1 term); removed by the President only on constitutional grounds; salary/pension from the Consolidated Fund. Role: watchdog of the merit system. Recommendations are advisory, not binding. The CVC (1964, statutory 2003) affected UPSC's role, but UPSC retains more power as a constitutional body. |
Art. 315-323, Part XIV | Chapter 45
| Nature / Background | State-level counterpart of the UPSC, a constitutional body. |
| Appointment & Composition | Strength NOT mentioned in the Constitution — left to the Governor's decision. Chairman & members appointed by the Governor, who determines conditions of service. No qualification mentioned, but 1/2 the members should have worked under the GoI or a State Government. |
| Term of Office | Term of office: 6 years OR 62 years of age, whichever is earlier. |
| Removal | Can resign by letter to the Governor. Can be removed ONLY by the President — similar grounds/process as a UPSC member (SC consulted, decision binding on the President). |
| Duties & Functions | Functions similar to the UPSC (State-level recruitment/exams). |
| Rights / Additional Powers | The Chairman of an SPSC is eligible to become Chairman/Member of the UPSC, or Chairman/Member of another SPSC — but not other government employment; no re-appointment for a 2nd term. |
| Limitations | Similar to the UPSC, but the Governor comes into the picture for regulations. Jurisdiction can be extended, as with the UPSC, by an Act of the State Legislature/Parliament. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Annual report to the Governor → placed in the State Legislature. |
| Key Notes | Salary/pension charged from the Consolidated Fund of the State — hence no sub-vote by the State Legislature. Role similar to the UPSC; the Central Vigilance Commission is mirrored by a State Vigilance Commission at the State level. |
For 2+ States | Related to Chapter 45
| Nature / Background | Statutory & NON-constitutional body (unlike the SPSC) — created by an Act of Parliament on the request of the State Legislature(s). Established in 1964. |
| Appointment & Composition | Chairman & members appointed by the President. |
| Term of Office | 6 years OR 62 years of age, whichever is earlier. Strength not mentioned — decided by the President. |
| Removal | Suspended/removed by the President. Resignation letter submitted to the President. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | Serves 2 or more States jointly. |
| Duties & Functions | The SPSC (and by extension the JSPSC) is consulted by the Governor when appointing judicial officers other than District Judges — the State High Court is also consulted. |
| Limitations | — |
| Reporting Mechanism | Annual report to the Governor(s) → placed in the State Legislature(s). |
| Key Notes | Historical root: the Government of India Act, 1919 provided for a Central Public Service Commission, established in 1926. |
Art. 324 | Chapter 43
| Nature / Background | Permanent & independent body established directly by the Constitution. All-India body, common for Centre & States. Concerned with elections to Parliament, State Legislature, President & VP — NOT Panchayats/Municipalities. |
| Appointment & Composition | Multi-member: 1 CEC + other ECs (strength not fixed) — equal powers, salary equal to a Judge of the SC. Appointed by the President under the CEC & ECs Appointment Act, 2023. A separate State Election Commission handles Panchayats/Municipalities under Art. 243K/243ZA (74th CAA, 1992). |
| Term of Office | Term/tenure decided by the President: 6 years OR 65 years of age, whichever is earlier. |
| Removal | Can't be removed easily — same as a Judge of the SC (resolution by both Houses, special majority). CEC's salary can't be changed after appointment. Other ECs can't be removed without the CEC's recommendation. |
| Detailed Composition / Independence | The CEC acts as Chairman of the EC during appointment of other regional Commissioners; the CEC is consulted by the President before appointing other ECs. |
| Duties & Functions | Powers — Administrative, Advisory, Quasi-Judicial: (1) determine electoral constituencies (2) prepare electoral rolls (3) notify election schedule & scrutinise nominations (4) recognise parties & symbols (5) act as a court in party/symbol disputes (6) appoint officers for election disputes. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Also: (7) determine Code of Conduct (8) prepare rosters for party publicity (9–10) advise President/Governor on MP/MLA disqualification (11) cancel polls on fraud (12) request requisitioning of staff (13) supervise election machinery (14) register parties as National/State (15) advise on elections during President's Rule. |
| Limitations | Anoop Baranwal case flaws: no qualification for EC members; no specified term; retired ECs can take other govt positions. Suggested a 3-member appointment committee (PM+LoP+CJI/Cabinet Min) with a Search Committee — later addressed via the CEC & ECs Appointment Act, 2023. |
| Reporting Mechanism | EC assisted by Deputy ECs → Secretaries, Joint Secretaries (Centre). Chief Electoral Officers (State) → District Collector as Returning Officer → Returning Officers (constituency) & Presiding Officers (polling booth). |
| Key Notes | Vision: strengthen electoral democracy — integrity, awareness, equity/impartiality, tech-friendly voting, engage parties, reinforce democratic trust. 2025: ECI reinstated the pre-2019 counting sequence. |
Art. 338 | Chapter 48
| Nature / Background | Constitutional body established by Article 338. |
| Appointment & Composition | 1 Chairperson + 1 Vice-Chairperson + 3 other Members, appointed by the President; tenure determined by the President. |
| Term of Office | Holds office for a term of 3 years; re-appointment not more than 2 terms. |
| Duties & Functions | (1) Investigate/monitor/safeguard SC matters (2) inquire into complaints of deprivation of SC rights (3) participate in socio-economic development and evaluate progress (4) present a report to the President on safeguards (5) recommend implementation measures to Union/State (6) discharge other functions the President may specify. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Acts as a civil court: summoning/enforcing attendance; requiring discovery/production of documents; requesting public records from any court; receiving evidence; any matter the President may determine. |
| Limitations | Central & State govts required to consult the commission in policy-making related to SCs. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Annual report to the President; can submit when required. Report placed in Parliament with a memorandum (reasons for non-acceptance); a State memorandum too, if concerned. |
| Key Notes | Evolution: Art. 338 originally provided a special officer/commissioner for SC & ST. 1978: non-statutory multi-member commission. 1987: renamed National Commission for SC & ST. 65th CAA, 1990 (force 1992): a high-level multi-member commission. 89th CAA, 2003: split into NCSC (Art. 338) & NCST (Art. 338A), existing from 2004. |
Art. 338A | Chapter 49
| Nature / Background | Constitutional body — a separate commission for STs. |
| Appointment & Composition | 1 Chairperson + 1 Vice-Chairperson + 3 other Members (similar to the NCSC), appointed by the President. |
| Term of Office | Tenure determined by the President as per Rules, 2004; tenure 3 years; re-appointment not more than 2 terms. |
| Removal | Similar process to the NCSC (President-determined; not separately detailed). |
| Duties & Functions | Functions similar to the NCSC, replacing 'SCs' with 'STs'. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Powers similar to the NCSC (civil court powers). |
| Reporting Mechanism | Presents annual report to the President. |
| Key Notes | 1999: a new Ministry of Tribal Affairs was created for sharper focus on STs (the Ministry of Social Justice couldn't do it alone). Bifurcation via the 89th CAA, 2003 (a joint NC for SC/ST had come via the 65th CAA, 1990). Other functions specified by the President in 2005: (1) forest produce ownership rights (2) mineral & water resource rights (3) tribal development/livelihood (4) relief & rehabilitation efficiency (5) preventing land alienation (6) forest protection/social afforestation (7) full implementation of PESA, 1996 (8) eliminate shifting cultivation. |
Art. 338B | New Chapter 50
| Nature / Background | Constitutional body since the 102nd CAA, 2018 (was statutory-only before). |
| Appointment & Composition | 1 Chairperson + 1 Vice-Chairperson + 3 other Members. Term & appointment based on the President's decision. |
| Term of Office | Tenure 3 years; re-appointment not more than 2 terms. |
| Removal | Not separately detailed (President-determined, per Rules, 2018). |
| Duties & Functions | Functions similar to the NCSC/NCST (investigate, monitor, safeguard matters relating to BCs). |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Powers similar to the NCSC & NCST (civil court powers). |
| Limitations | Central/State govts need to consult the Commission for major policy matters, BUT the 105th CAA, 2021 exempted State govts from consulting it on preparing/maintaining the BC list. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Submits annual report to the President. |
| Key Notes | Mandal's case: the SC directed the central govt to establish a permanent statutory body for BC-inclusion complaints — it became a constitutional body via the 102nd CAA, 2018. Previously discharged similar functions for OBCs & the Anglo-Indian community, relieved by the 102nd CAA, 2018 (transferred as the NCBC became a constitutional body). 1993: statutory NCBC. 2025: the NCBC recommended excluding 35 communities from the Central OBC list of West Bengal. |
Art. 350B | Chapter 51 | Part XVII
| Nature / Background | Created in 1957; also known as the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities (SOFLM), determined on a state-wise basis. |
| Appointment & Composition | Art. 350B: (i) SOLM appointed by the President (ii) duty to investigate matters relating to safeguards for linguistic minorities & report to the President. |
| Term of Office | Constitution does NOT specify: qualifications, tenure, salary & allowances, service conditions, or removal procedure. |
| Removal | Not specified in the Constitution (see above). |
| Duties & Functions | Investigates all matters relating to safeguards for linguistic minorities & reports to the President. |
| Rights / Additional Powers | Role: visits linguistic minority areas/institutions; takes up grievances re: non-implementation; holds national discussions to preserve linguistic minorities. Vision: safeguard, monitor, report, ensure equal opportunity, spread awareness, ensure implementation by States/UTs. |
| Reporting Mechanism | Submits report to the President through the Union Minority Affairs Minister → placed before each House of Parliament. |
| Key Notes | Originally SOFLM was not in the Constitution. The States Reorganisation Commission (1953–55) recommended this; via the 7th CAA, 1956, Art. 350B was inserted (Part XVII). Commissionerate HQ at Allahabad (UP) & regional offices; since 2015: Delhi, Belgaum (Karnataka), Chennai (TN), Kolkata (WB). Falls under the Ministry of Minority Affairs (MoMA); headed by a Commissioner, with Deputy Commissioners. |
IPG (Indian Parliamentary Group) is explained by M.N. Kaul & S.L. Shakdher (an authoritative parliamentary procedure text). It acts as (i) the IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union) group, and (ii) the CPA (Commonwealth Parliamentary Association) branch, for India. The new syllabus refers to this chapter's content as IPG.
The IPU is an international organisation of sovereign states' Parliaments, currently with 179 member parliaments, aiming to work for peace and co-operation. As an IPU member, IPG: helps Indian MPs build contacts abroad; provides opportunity to study global reforms; lets members meet foreign parliamentarians during visits; lets members join Indian delegations to IPU conferences; lets members hold positions in IPU bodies; and presents India's viewpoint in IPU meetings.
The CPA has about 17,000 Commonwealth parliamentarians and staff, across 180 national, state, provincial and territorial parliaments in 53 Commonwealth countries. Aim: promote knowledge and understanding of legislative, economic, social and cultural systems within a parliamentary democratic framework. Functions: conferences & seminars, publications, information, introductions, parliamentary facilities, and travel. PFG objectives under the CPA framework: maintain political, economic & socio-cultural relations between countries; promote good Indo-parliamentary co-operation; exchange information and interests between Parliaments.
Created to improve co-operation between India's Parliament and other Parliaments worldwide — building good relations, working together globally, sharing ideas and experiences, and promoting peace and development.
Prelims tests article numbers and which body is constitutional vs. statutory — a classic trap is the JSPSC (statutory, unlike the SPSC) and the NCBC (constitutional only since the 102nd CAA, 2018 — it was statutory before). Mains rewards comparing appointment/removal safeguards across bodies — e.g. why the CAG and ECI's removal mirrors a Supreme Court judge's, while an SPSC member's removal is a lighter process routed through the President alone.
