The 6th-century BC reformist movement that challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy — the lives, philosophies, councils and sects of the two great Shramana traditions.
Numerous religious sects (about 62) arose around the Gangetic plains in the latter half of the 6th century BC — contemporary with Zoroastrianism in Central Asia and Confucianism in China. The trigger was unrest against Brahmin domination: a rigid caste hierarchy, privileges reserved for Brahmins, virtual slavery for Shudras, and untouchability that debarred groups from Vedic study. Both Buddhism and Jainism were supported by merchants (Sreshthis), since neither gave importance to the varna system and both preached non-violence; both preferred a simple, ascetic life and rejected the authority of the Vedas.
Siddhartha Gautama was born at Lumbini to Mayadevi and Shuddhodhana, king of Kapilavastu, of the Sakya clan (hence "Sakyamuni"). His wife was Yashodhara; his son, Rahula. At age 29, after encountering the 4 sights — an old man, a diseased person, a corpse, and an ascetic — he renounced the world. After studying under Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra, he meditated for 49 days on the bank of the Niranjana, attaining enlightenment at age 35 under the Bodhi tree — witnessed by the Bhumisparsha (earth-touching) gesture.
His first sermon, the "Dharmachakra Pravartana," was delivered at the deer park in Sarnath to 5 disciples. The 3 Jewels (Triratna) of Buddhism are Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. He died at Kushinagar at age 80 (483 BC) after eating food offered by Chunda — the Mahaparinirvana.
The 4 Noble Truths: Dukha (suffering exists), Dukha Samudaya (it has a cause — excessive desire), Dukha Nirodha (it can cease), and Dukha Nirodha Gamini Pratipada (the path to its cessation) — the 8-Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga): Right Understanding, Determination, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Thought, and Meditation. The Buddha followed the "Madhya Marga" (Middle Path). He was agnostic on God, believed in Karma via "Pratityasamutpada" (dependent origination), and did not believe in a permanent soul (Anatmavadi). He did not oppose the caste system itself but opposed its evils, holding caste should be decided on merit. Buddhism opened its doors to both women and Shudras — women were admitted to the Sangha during Ananda's time.
| Council | Venue / Patron | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 1st (483 BC) | Rajagriha; Ajatashatru | Suttapitaka & Vinaya Pitaka compiled (Pali) |
| 2nd (383 BC) | Vaishali; Kalashoka | 1st split: Mahasanghikas vs Sthaviravadins |
| 3rd (250 BC) | Pataliputra; Ashoka | "Abhidhamma" compiled; Buddhism spread internationally |
| 4th (c. 100 AD) | Kundalavana (Kashmir); Kanishka | 2nd split: Mahayana vs Hinayana |
The Mahayana ("pro-changers") worshipped the Buddha as God, used Sanskrit, and is the "Northern" tradition — most widely followed today. Hinayana ("no-changers," Ashoka's branch) treated the Buddha as a philosopher, rejected idol worship, used Pali, and is the "Southern" tradition that prevailed in South India. Royal patronage was crucial to its spread: Ashoka sent missions to Sri Lanka (his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra), Myanmar and Greece; Kanishka spread Buddhism to Central Asia; Kumaragupta founded Nalanda; Harshavardhana was the last major ancient king to convert.
By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had gone into steep decline — absorbed by Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita revival (which argued Buddhism and Jainism were mere branches of Brahmanism), persecuted in waves (Pushyamitra Shunga, the Huna king Mihirakula), and finally devastated by Turkish invasions — Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed Nalanda in 1197. Many monks fled to Nepal and Tibet.
Jainism (also "Shramanas" or "Nirgranthas") predates Mahavira, who is regarded as its real founder — the 24th Tirthankara, not the first. Firm historical proof exists for only two: Parshvanatha (23rd, founder of 4 cardinal principles — Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha) and Mahavira himself. Born in Kundalagrama, Vaishali (540 BC) to Siddhartha and Trishala, Mahavira belonged to the Gnatrika clan and was related to Bimbisara. He added a 5th vow — Brahmacharya (celibacy) — to Parshvanatha's four. At age 42, after 12 years of meditation, he attained Kaivalya on the banks of the Rijupalika, becoming "Kevalin." He delivered his first sermon at Pava to 11 disciples (Ganadharas), and died at Pavapuri (age 72) through the ritual fast Sallekhana.
The 3 Ratnas (Three Jewels) of Jainism: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct. Jain philosophy centres on Syadvada/Anekantavada — the idea that truth/reality changes according to perspective, attained through 7 ways (Sapta Bhangi). Unlike Buddhism, Jainism believed in a permanent soul (Paramatma) and believed in god but not a creator, favouring the concept of the "Jina" instead. Crucially, Jainism held that Ahimsa could never be compromised — the most important of its core doctrines — whereas Buddhism allowed some compromise. Jains discarded Sanskrit for Prakrit, and over time confined themselves largely to mercantile activities, having prohibited war and eventually even agriculture.
The 1st Council (c. 300 BC, Pataliputra, presided by Sthulabhadra, patronised by Chandragupta Maurya) reorganised Mahavira's 14 original teachings into 12 Angas — and produced the first split: Swetambaras ("white-clad") vs Digambaras ("sky-clad," no clothing). The 2nd Council (c. 512 AD, Vallabhi, presided by Devardhi) reduced the 12 chapters to 11, giving rise to the Upangas.
Royal patrons included Chandragupta Maurya (converted by Bhadrabahu; died by Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola) and Kharavela of Kalinga (Digambara). The Gomateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola — the world's tallest monolithic granite statue, installed by Chamundaraya — remains Jainism's most iconic monument.
| Aspect | Buddhism | Jainism |
|---|---|---|
| Path to salvation | Karma Marga | Gyana Marga (knowledge) |
| Soul | Anatmavada — no permanent soul | Believes in Paramatma (soul) |
| Varna system | Condemned | Not condemned |
| Ahimsa | Could be compromised | Never compromised |
| Language of texts | Pali (Hinayana) / Sanskrit (Mahayana) | Prakrit |
